Indian women over the age of 45 die at a disproportionately higher rate than men their age, according to research by Rossella Calvi, to be presented at the Royal Economic Society''s annual conference in Brighton in March 2016.
Her study shows that in India there are more women living in poverty than men, but that the gap between female and male poverty rates widens dramatically at post-reproductive ages. Moreover, compared with developed countries, older Indian women die at a disproportionately higher rate relative to men exactly at those ages when they are disproportionately poorer than men.
Calvi demonstrates that excess female mortality among older women in India is linked to a specific form of unequal treatment inside the family and to its consequences for poverty. When women are too old to have children, they receive as little at 60% of resources such as food and healthcare as their male counterparts.
This research has crucial implications. First, as the Indian population is aging, gender inequality among the elderly needs to be addressed promptly. Second, policies that reduce the inequality women face in their own families (such as improving their right to inherit property) can also make them healthier. Finally, poverty and inequality need to be understood not just between families but also within them.
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Older women in India are significantly poorer than men. In this study, Rossella Calvi finds that for Indians between the ages of 45 and 79, poverty rates among women are 80% higher on average than among men. Moreover, women''s relative poverty rates increase with age, at a pace that exactly matches females'' unusually higher death rates.
The fact is that there are far more men than women in India compared with developed countries. Following the seminal work by Amartya Sen, this phenomenon has been dubbed ''missing women''. Sex-selective abortion and infanticide have been identified as important determinants of missing women, and biased sex ratios and parental preferences for male children might be to blame.
But this is just the beginning of the story behind the imbalanced male-to-female ratio. Compared with women in developed countries, Indian women over the age of 45 die at a disproportionately higher rate than men their age.
Calvi demonstrates that excess female mortality among older women in India is linked to a specific form of unequal treatment inside the family and to its consequences for poverty. Combining data on the expenditure patterns of Indian households with economic theory, the author studies how the allocation of household resources among its members varies with women''s age.
The analysis indicates that the share of household resources – including food and healthcare – devoted to women is tightly linked to reproduction and child-rearing and declines with age. Indian women of post-reproductive ages (45 and above) receive as low as 60% of their male counterpart.
Why does intra-household allocation of resources matter for women''s health and, ultimately, mortality risk? Because it significantly increases their likelihood of being poor. Calvi computes poverty rates (the fraction of individuals living below poverty line, that is, $1.25 a day) that are adjusted for unequal sharing of household resources – and therefore different from standard poverty measures, which by construction ignore intra-household inequality.
Calvi''s poverty estimates show that there are more women living in poverty than men, but that the gap between female and male poverty rates widens dramatically at post-reproductive ages. Moreover, compared to developed countries, older Indian women die at a disproportionately higher rate relative to men exactly at those ages when they are disproportionately poorer than men.
This research has crucial implications:
• First, as the Indian population is aging, gender inequality among the elderly needs to be promptly addressed.
• Second, policies to promote women''s position within their families, such as improving their right to inherit property, can have positive spillovers on their health and wellbeing.
• Finally, a correct measurement of poverty requires taking into account how resources are allocated among household members. Failure to do so can dramatically weaken the efficacy and efficiency of the fight against poverty.
''Why Are Older Women Missing in India? The Age Profile of Bargaining Power and Poverty'' – Rossella Calvi, Boston College, Department of Economics
For more information, contact Rossella Calvi at rossella.calvi@bc.edu
